Thursday, October 2, 2008
Wednesday, October 1, 2008
Ok, I'm shocked this is news
Of course this is the obvious thing to do when solar panels are more common and to make them even more common.
Sunday, September 28, 2008
From the Science Daily--solar topics
Absorbing more of the spectrum
Using OLED technology for solar power.
“We’re working on synthesizing novel polymers with variable band gaps, including high, medium and low-band gap varieties, to absorb the full spectrum of sunlight. By this we can double the light harvesting or absorption,” Qiao said.
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Roads as water heaters/solar energy creators:
“Asphalt has a lot of advantages as a solar collector,” Mallick says. “For one, blacktop stays hot and could continue to generate energy after the sun goes down, unlike traditional solar-electric cells. In addition, there is already a massive acreage of installed roads and parking lots that could be retrofitted for energy generation, so there is no need to find additional land for solar farms. Roads and lots are typically resurfaced every 10 to 12 years and the retrofit could be built into that cycle. Extracting heat from asphalt could cool it, reducing the urban ‘heat island’ effect. Finally, unlike roof-top solar arrays, which some find unattractive, the solar collectors in roads and parking lots would be invisible.”
Hot water flowing from an asphalt energy system could be used “as is” for heating buildings or in industrial processes, or could be passed through a thermoelectric generator to produce electricity.
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Slicing Wafer better lowers costs of solar cells.
"We're coming up with a more efficient way of making germanium wafers for solar cells – to reduce the cost and weight of these solar cells and make them defect-free."
The new method for slicing solar cell wafers – known as wire electrical discharge machining (WEDM) – wastes less germanium and produces more wafers by cutting even thinner wafers with less waste and cracking. The method uses an extremely thin molybdenum wire with an electrical current running through it. It has been used previously for machining metals during tool-making.
Germanium serves as the bottom layer of the most efficient existing type of solar cell, but is used primarily on NASA, military and commercial satellites because of the high expense – raw germanium costs about $680 per pound. Four-inch-wide wafers used in solar cells cost $80 to $100 each, and the new cutting method may reduce the cost by more than 10 percent, . . .
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Old news here
Thin films solar cells
Silicon is the material of choice in the electronics industry because of its stability, non-toxicity and ubiquity. However, silicon is a poor absorber of light. In a bid to drive down costs, scientists have moved from using expensive thick silicon “wafers” to cheaper “thin film” cells, containing less silicon.
********************************************************
Using OLED technology for solar power.
“We’re working on synthesizing novel polymers with variable band gaps, including high, medium and low-band gap varieties, to absorb the full spectrum of sunlight. By this we can double the light harvesting or absorption,” Qiao said.
**********************************************
Roads as water heaters/solar energy creators:
“Asphalt has a lot of advantages as a solar collector,” Mallick says. “For one, blacktop stays hot and could continue to generate energy after the sun goes down, unlike traditional solar-electric cells. In addition, there is already a massive acreage of installed roads and parking lots that could be retrofitted for energy generation, so there is no need to find additional land for solar farms. Roads and lots are typically resurfaced every 10 to 12 years and the retrofit could be built into that cycle. Extracting heat from asphalt could cool it, reducing the urban ‘heat island’ effect. Finally, unlike roof-top solar arrays, which some find unattractive, the solar collectors in roads and parking lots would be invisible.”
Hot water flowing from an asphalt energy system could be used “as is” for heating buildings or in industrial processes, or could be passed through a thermoelectric generator to produce electricity.
********************************************************
Slicing Wafer better lowers costs of solar cells.
"We're coming up with a more efficient way of making germanium wafers for solar cells – to reduce the cost and weight of these solar cells and make them defect-free."
The new method for slicing solar cell wafers – known as wire electrical discharge machining (WEDM) – wastes less germanium and produces more wafers by cutting even thinner wafers with less waste and cracking. The method uses an extremely thin molybdenum wire with an electrical current running through it. It has been used previously for machining metals during tool-making.
Germanium serves as the bottom layer of the most efficient existing type of solar cell, but is used primarily on NASA, military and commercial satellites because of the high expense – raw germanium costs about $680 per pound. Four-inch-wide wafers used in solar cells cost $80 to $100 each, and the new cutting method may reduce the cost by more than 10 percent, . . .
********************************************************
Old news here
Thin films solar cells
Silicon is the material of choice in the electronics industry because of its stability, non-toxicity and ubiquity. However, silicon is a poor absorber of light. In a bid to drive down costs, scientists have moved from using expensive thick silicon “wafers” to cheaper “thin film” cells, containing less silicon.
********************************************************
Sunspots haven't returned, now this
Don't know what is up with the Sun these days. First our sun spots are still missing. Not that their absence is outside of statistical norms but it is getting close. And then the solar wind is acting wonky.
AR coating review--techonology overview
Specific patents listed below.
Patent Review: AR coatings: doing more than reflecting less
David Waechter, Nerac analyst
The quest for higher efficiency in solar cells and LED lighting, and reducing glare from display screens, have led to a dramatic increase in antireflective coating patents.
David Waechter, Nerac analystThe concept of using a coating to reduce surface reflection has been known for many years. Yet the technology continues to advance, and patent activity shows no sign of slowing down. An additional focus is films that do more than just reduce reflection.Lord J.S. Rayleigh demonstrated in 1879 that a graded index-of-refraction layer could reduce reflection over a broad range of wavelengths (On the reflection of vibrations at the confines of two media between which the transition is gradual, Proc. London Math. Soc., 11 (1879) pp. 51-56). However in Rayleigh's day, there were relatively few applications for this effect.
In the modern world there is a strong impetus to push the technology to its limits because of the need for higher efficiency in solar cells and LED lighting, as well as the need to reduce glare from display screens. Patents in this technology continue to grow especially in countries other than the United States. The number of U.S. patent titles that refer to antireflection coatings in the first 7-1/2 years of this century is almost twice that of the 1990s. Even larger increases have occurred for European patents. And the Japanese patent office has been publishing significantly more patent applications in this area than the United States and Europe combined.
In practical implementations, it is common to use a single layer of constant index to reduce the reflectivity to zero at a chosen wavelength at normal incidence. Multi-layers or graded layers can provide low reflectance over a broader bandwidth, but usually with greater cost. In the case of single layers on silicon solar cells, for example, the chosen wavelength is optimized to maximize efficiency, while taking into account the solar spectrum, the silicon band gap and electrical loss mechanisms. The optimum coating thickness gives silicon cells the deep blue color that can be seen on solar farms and rooftops in ever-increasing numbers. Yet we know that if the coating stopped all reflection, the cells would appear jet black from any angle. Achieving this in a cost-effective manner has been elusive, but progress continues.
While a great deal of attention has rightly been placed on improving the reflectance properties, simultaneously achieving other technical benefits has been receiving attention too. Examples include improving physical hardness and abrasion resistance, as well as providing electrical conduction and even providing defogging properties. And lower cost processes will always attract attention. What else is being patented today? Here are some examples from filings with the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office:
US07374812: Low refractive index coating composition for use in antireflection polymer film coatings and manufacturing method.This patent by 3M describes a silicone-modified fluoropolymer that is suitable for displays. It uses higher fluorine content to achieve lower refractive index while also improving adhesion.
US07332213: Hardcoat film, antireflection film and equipment for display.This patent by Torray Industries describes a hard-coat anti-reflecting film for displays that has a mean reflectance between 400 and 600 nm of 1 percent or less.
US07153584: Hybrid film, antireflection film comprising it, optical product, and method for restoring the defogging property of hybrid film.This patent by Hoya Corporation describes films for lenses that provide both defogging and antireflection properties.
US07283303: Conductive anti-reflection coating.This patent by JDS Uniphase breaks up a quarter wave layer into smaller portions using thin layers of conductive material to provide a solid electrical contact with low contact resistance.
US20060099407: Antireflective coating composition, antireflection film, and fabrication method thereof.This application describes an anti-reflection coating with better mechanical strength. It achieves low index of refraction by using cross-linked colloidal particles with distributed nanopores.
US20060074172: Antiglare and antireflection coatings of surface active nanoparticles.This application from Optimax Technology Corporation describes a process for preparing durable antireflection coatings that use low and high refractive index layers with a self-assembling gradient layer in between.
Patent Review: AR coatings: doing more than reflecting less
David Waechter, Nerac analyst
The quest for higher efficiency in solar cells and LED lighting, and reducing glare from display screens, have led to a dramatic increase in antireflective coating patents.
David Waechter, Nerac analystThe concept of using a coating to reduce surface reflection has been known for many years. Yet the technology continues to advance, and patent activity shows no sign of slowing down. An additional focus is films that do more than just reduce reflection.Lord J.S. Rayleigh demonstrated in 1879 that a graded index-of-refraction layer could reduce reflection over a broad range of wavelengths (On the reflection of vibrations at the confines of two media between which the transition is gradual, Proc. London Math. Soc., 11 (1879) pp. 51-56). However in Rayleigh's day, there were relatively few applications for this effect.
In the modern world there is a strong impetus to push the technology to its limits because of the need for higher efficiency in solar cells and LED lighting, as well as the need to reduce glare from display screens. Patents in this technology continue to grow especially in countries other than the United States. The number of U.S. patent titles that refer to antireflection coatings in the first 7-1/2 years of this century is almost twice that of the 1990s. Even larger increases have occurred for European patents. And the Japanese patent office has been publishing significantly more patent applications in this area than the United States and Europe combined.
In practical implementations, it is common to use a single layer of constant index to reduce the reflectivity to zero at a chosen wavelength at normal incidence. Multi-layers or graded layers can provide low reflectance over a broader bandwidth, but usually with greater cost. In the case of single layers on silicon solar cells, for example, the chosen wavelength is optimized to maximize efficiency, while taking into account the solar spectrum, the silicon band gap and electrical loss mechanisms. The optimum coating thickness gives silicon cells the deep blue color that can be seen on solar farms and rooftops in ever-increasing numbers. Yet we know that if the coating stopped all reflection, the cells would appear jet black from any angle. Achieving this in a cost-effective manner has been elusive, but progress continues.
While a great deal of attention has rightly been placed on improving the reflectance properties, simultaneously achieving other technical benefits has been receiving attention too. Examples include improving physical hardness and abrasion resistance, as well as providing electrical conduction and even providing defogging properties. And lower cost processes will always attract attention. What else is being patented today? Here are some examples from filings with the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office:
US07374812: Low refractive index coating composition for use in antireflection polymer film coatings and manufacturing method.This patent by 3M describes a silicone-modified fluoropolymer that is suitable for displays. It uses higher fluorine content to achieve lower refractive index while also improving adhesion.
US07332213: Hardcoat film, antireflection film and equipment for display.This patent by Torray Industries describes a hard-coat anti-reflecting film for displays that has a mean reflectance between 400 and 600 nm of 1 percent or less.
US07153584: Hybrid film, antireflection film comprising it, optical product, and method for restoring the defogging property of hybrid film.This patent by Hoya Corporation describes films for lenses that provide both defogging and antireflection properties.
US07283303: Conductive anti-reflection coating.This patent by JDS Uniphase breaks up a quarter wave layer into smaller portions using thin layers of conductive material to provide a solid electrical contact with low contact resistance.
US20060099407: Antireflective coating composition, antireflection film, and fabrication method thereof.This application describes an anti-reflection coating with better mechanical strength. It achieves low index of refraction by using cross-linked colloidal particles with distributed nanopores.
US20060074172: Antiglare and antireflection coatings of surface active nanoparticles.This application from Optimax Technology Corporation describes a process for preparing durable antireflection coatings that use low and high refractive index layers with a self-assembling gradient layer in between.
Solar America Initiative
This is a long document that really looks at the business model of solar energy from the DOE.
Draft Sept 5, 2007
Draft Sept 5, 2007
Sunday, September 7, 2008
We will be back with you shortly
sorry but politics grabbed up all my spare time. I'm coming back to this soon I promise. At least in Nov. for sure. Hopefully sooner.
Tuesday, August 12, 2008
The end to my career?
LCD's have long been one of the strong players in the display industry keeping polarization lovers like myself employed. But now there is a new way to use LC's that won't need folks like me so much. Ah well, it was time to learn a few new tricks anyway.
Sunday, August 10, 2008
Ever wanted to play God?
Universe Sandbox
This software allows you to play with the universe. Even just the demos are very cool. We particularly enjoyed watching the Andromeda Galaxy and the Milky Way as it collides some 2.5 billion years out into the future. Jaden was very concerned about the welfare of the Sun.
It allows you to let your imagination run free. You can add another star to our system and see what happens. You can pull Jupiter in closer to the Sun and see what happens. You can put rings around the moon.
Though the interactions are fairly simple, it is just too much fun to play with.
This software allows you to play with the universe. Even just the demos are very cool. We particularly enjoyed watching the Andromeda Galaxy and the Milky Way as it collides some 2.5 billion years out into the future. Jaden was very concerned about the welfare of the Sun.
It allows you to let your imagination run free. You can add another star to our system and see what happens. You can pull Jupiter in closer to the Sun and see what happens. You can put rings around the moon.
Though the interactions are fairly simple, it is just too much fun to play with.
Saturday, August 9, 2008
Silicon nanowires
from SPIE
Silicon nanowires for solar photovoltaic applications
Gang Chen and Lu Hu
The low optical reflection from nanowire arrays could be exploited to improve the photon absorption efficiency of solar cells.
The majority of solar photovoltaic modules sold are silicon-based, but in recent years increased demand for silicon solar cells has inflated the price of raw silicon materials. The shortage of high-quality silicon has lead to research to find novel ways to design photovoltaic cells using inexpensive, low-quality silicon alternatives. Photovoltaic cells based on silicon nanowire arrays have emerged as a promising candidate for solar energy harvesting.1,2 Silicon nanowire solar cells consist of arrays of radial p-n junction nanowires (see Figure 1) where the darker outer shell is composed of n-type silicon, to which the electron acceptor phosphorous has been added, and the lighter inner core from p-type silicon, to which the electron donor boron has been added. Each individual nanowire in the array has a p-n junction and acts as a tiny photovoltaic cell.
Silicon solar cells based on nanowires have much shorter p-n junctions that thin film solar cells. In the nanowire structure, photo-excited electrons and holes (carriers) travel very short distances before being collected by the electrodes. This results in a higher carrier-collection efficiency in the core-shell nanowire structure, and this advantage leads to a higher tolerance for material defects and allows the use of a lower-quality silicon. The core-shell nanowire structure addresses the carrier-collection issue, one of the key factors that determine the overall efficiency of a solar cell. However, the efficiency of photon capture in the nanowire structures, another very important factor, has not yet been determined.
Figure 1. Diagram of the silicon nanowire solar cell. Each individual nanowire is a tiny p-n junction. The darker outer shell is n-type silicon. The lighter inner core is p-type silicon.
Nanowire arrays are expected to possess significantly different optical properties from their bulk-length counterparts because they are smaller than the wavelength of visible light. In our recent work,3 we performed numerical simulations to study optical absorption in silicon nanowire structures with a diameter between 50 and 80nm. Wave effects are taken into account by numerically solving the full-wave Maxwell's equations. Our study reveals the silicon nanowire structures have desirable anti-reflection characteristics across a broad spectrum.
Figure 2. Radiative properties of nanowire structures of various thickness. L is the wire length. (a) Absorptance of nanowires with L = 1.16, 2.33, and 4.66μm (diameter =50nm, wire spacing =100nm). The absorptance of a thin film is included for reference. (b) Reflectance of nanowires and the thin film. (Adapted with permission, copyright American Chemical Society, 2007.3)
First, we investigated the effect of wire length on optical absorption. Figure 2(a) shows the optical absorbance of an array of silicon nanowires with a diameter of 50nm. Three wire lengths, 1.16, 2.33, and 4.66μm, are selected to show the thickness-dependent absorptance. The light is incident (falls upon) the top of the nanowire structure in the normal direction along the wire axis. The absorptance of a 2.33μm silicon film is plotted in the same figure as a reference. The graph shows that the optical absorption is limited in the low-frequency regime, particularly for shorter wires. Longer wires tend to compensate for insufficient light absorption in the low-energy regime, and as the frequency increases, the absorptance in the nanowires rises and reaches a plateau. Absorptance in the nanowires in the high-frequency regime is higher than that in the thin film compared to the low-frequency regime where absorption in the film is more efficient.
The total absorptance of the nanowire structure is determined by the reflectance and transmittance of light. To understand the trend of absorptance in nanowire arrays, in Figure 2(b) we plot the reflectance and transmittance for a nanowire structure and a thin film. It is interesting to note that reflectance of the nanowires is significantly lower than that of the thin film across the entire spectrum. In the thin-film solar cell, such a small reflectance can only be achieved by applying special antireflection coatings. It is the combined effect of the small reflectance and zero transmittance in the high-frequency regime that causes higher absorptance in the nanowires than in thin films. In the low-frequency regime, Figure 2 shows that the transmittance of the nanowire structure is higher than that of the thin film. The higher transmittance cannot be compensated by the low reflectance, leading to insufficient absorption of low-energy photons in the nanowire structure.
Figure 3 shows the absorptance of nanowire structures with different filling ratios. All structures have a fixed wire spacing of 100nm and wire length of 2.33μm, but the wire diameter varies. The figure shows that larger filling ratios give higher absorption in the low-frequency regime, while in the high-frequency regime nanowires with smaller filling ratios can absorb more light. By changing the filling ratios, a nanowire structure can have an overall absorption efficiency close to that of thin film.
Figure 3. Reflectance of nanowire structures with various filling ratios where f is the filling ratio.
In summary, our analysis demonstrates that nanowire structures have the advantage of small reflectance across a wide spectrum and can be achieved without specially designed antireflection coatings. This small reflectance improves optical absorption significantly in the high-frequency regime, while in the low-frequency regime a similar improvement cannot be achieved because of the small extinction coefficient of silicon, which is the light lost to scattering and absorption. However, the less-optimal absorption in the low-frequency regime can be overcome by using longer wires or light trapping.
Silicon nanowires for solar photovoltaic applications
Gang Chen and Lu Hu
The low optical reflection from nanowire arrays could be exploited to improve the photon absorption efficiency of solar cells.
The majority of solar photovoltaic modules sold are silicon-based, but in recent years increased demand for silicon solar cells has inflated the price of raw silicon materials. The shortage of high-quality silicon has lead to research to find novel ways to design photovoltaic cells using inexpensive, low-quality silicon alternatives. Photovoltaic cells based on silicon nanowire arrays have emerged as a promising candidate for solar energy harvesting.1,2 Silicon nanowire solar cells consist of arrays of radial p-n junction nanowires (see Figure 1) where the darker outer shell is composed of n-type silicon, to which the electron acceptor phosphorous has been added, and the lighter inner core from p-type silicon, to which the electron donor boron has been added. Each individual nanowire in the array has a p-n junction and acts as a tiny photovoltaic cell.
Silicon solar cells based on nanowires have much shorter p-n junctions that thin film solar cells. In the nanowire structure, photo-excited electrons and holes (carriers) travel very short distances before being collected by the electrodes. This results in a higher carrier-collection efficiency in the core-shell nanowire structure, and this advantage leads to a higher tolerance for material defects and allows the use of a lower-quality silicon. The core-shell nanowire structure addresses the carrier-collection issue, one of the key factors that determine the overall efficiency of a solar cell. However, the efficiency of photon capture in the nanowire structures, another very important factor, has not yet been determined.
Figure 1. Diagram of the silicon nanowire solar cell. Each individual nanowire is a tiny p-n junction. The darker outer shell is n-type silicon. The lighter inner core is p-type silicon.
Nanowire arrays are expected to possess significantly different optical properties from their bulk-length counterparts because they are smaller than the wavelength of visible light. In our recent work,3 we performed numerical simulations to study optical absorption in silicon nanowire structures with a diameter between 50 and 80nm. Wave effects are taken into account by numerically solving the full-wave Maxwell's equations. Our study reveals the silicon nanowire structures have desirable anti-reflection characteristics across a broad spectrum.
Figure 2. Radiative properties of nanowire structures of various thickness. L is the wire length. (a) Absorptance of nanowires with L = 1.16, 2.33, and 4.66μm (diameter =50nm, wire spacing =100nm). The absorptance of a thin film is included for reference. (b) Reflectance of nanowires and the thin film. (Adapted with permission, copyright American Chemical Society, 2007.3)
First, we investigated the effect of wire length on optical absorption. Figure 2(a) shows the optical absorbance of an array of silicon nanowires with a diameter of 50nm. Three wire lengths, 1.16, 2.33, and 4.66μm, are selected to show the thickness-dependent absorptance. The light is incident (falls upon) the top of the nanowire structure in the normal direction along the wire axis. The absorptance of a 2.33μm silicon film is plotted in the same figure as a reference. The graph shows that the optical absorption is limited in the low-frequency regime, particularly for shorter wires. Longer wires tend to compensate for insufficient light absorption in the low-energy regime, and as the frequency increases, the absorptance in the nanowires rises and reaches a plateau. Absorptance in the nanowires in the high-frequency regime is higher than that in the thin film compared to the low-frequency regime where absorption in the film is more efficient.
The total absorptance of the nanowire structure is determined by the reflectance and transmittance of light. To understand the trend of absorptance in nanowire arrays, in Figure 2(b) we plot the reflectance and transmittance for a nanowire structure and a thin film. It is interesting to note that reflectance of the nanowires is significantly lower than that of the thin film across the entire spectrum. In the thin-film solar cell, such a small reflectance can only be achieved by applying special antireflection coatings. It is the combined effect of the small reflectance and zero transmittance in the high-frequency regime that causes higher absorptance in the nanowires than in thin films. In the low-frequency regime, Figure 2 shows that the transmittance of the nanowire structure is higher than that of the thin film. The higher transmittance cannot be compensated by the low reflectance, leading to insufficient absorption of low-energy photons in the nanowire structure.
Figure 3 shows the absorptance of nanowire structures with different filling ratios. All structures have a fixed wire spacing of 100nm and wire length of 2.33μm, but the wire diameter varies. The figure shows that larger filling ratios give higher absorption in the low-frequency regime, while in the high-frequency regime nanowires with smaller filling ratios can absorb more light. By changing the filling ratios, a nanowire structure can have an overall absorption efficiency close to that of thin film.
Figure 3. Reflectance of nanowire structures with various filling ratios where f is the filling ratio.
In summary, our analysis demonstrates that nanowire structures have the advantage of small reflectance across a wide spectrum and can be achieved without specially designed antireflection coatings. This small reflectance improves optical absorption significantly in the high-frequency regime, while in the low-frequency regime a similar improvement cannot be achieved because of the small extinction coefficient of silicon, which is the light lost to scattering and absorption. However, the less-optimal absorption in the low-frequency regime can be overcome by using longer wires or light trapping.
Solar energy storage
from SPIE website
Breakthrough could enable solar energy storage
The fuel of the future could be hydrogen -- if it can be made cheaply enough. Currently, electrolyzers (machines that split water into its constituent hydrogen and oxygen) need a catalyst, namely platinum, to run; ditto fuel cells to recombine that hydrogen with oxygen, which produces electricity.
Researchers from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Monash University in Australia report in Science that they may have a cost-effective solution to the need for expensive platinum.
Chemist Daniel Nocera, head of the M.I.T.'s Solar Revolution Project, focused on one side of the equation: splitting water into its constituent hydrogen and oxygen molecules. Nocera and postdoctoral fellow Matthew Kanan discovered it could be accomplished by simply adding cobalt and phosphate to water and running a current through it. In contrast to platinum, cobalt and phosphhttp://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5061654797367748456
Blogger: Science Digest - Create Postate cost roughly $2.25 an ounce and $.05 an ounce, respectively.
Nocera and Kanan developed an unprecedented process that will allow the sun's energy to be used to split water into hydrogen and oxygen gases. Later, the oxygen and hydrogen may be recombined inside a fuel cell, creating carbon-free electricity to power your house or your electric car, day or night.
more
Breakthrough could enable solar energy storage
The fuel of the future could be hydrogen -- if it can be made cheaply enough. Currently, electrolyzers (machines that split water into its constituent hydrogen and oxygen) need a catalyst, namely platinum, to run; ditto fuel cells to recombine that hydrogen with oxygen, which produces electricity.
Researchers from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Monash University in Australia report in Science that they may have a cost-effective solution to the need for expensive platinum.
Chemist Daniel Nocera, head of the M.I.T.'s Solar Revolution Project, focused on one side of the equation: splitting water into its constituent hydrogen and oxygen molecules. Nocera and postdoctoral fellow Matthew Kanan discovered it could be accomplished by simply adding cobalt and phosphate to water and running a current through it. In contrast to platinum, cobalt and phosphhttp://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5061654797367748456
Blogger: Science Digest - Create Postate cost roughly $2.25 an ounce and $.05 an ounce, respectively.
Nocera and Kanan developed an unprecedented process that will allow the sun's energy to be used to split water into hydrogen and oxygen gases. Later, the oxygen and hydrogen may be recombined inside a fuel cell, creating carbon-free electricity to power your house or your electric car, day or night.
more
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